Conclusion: Are all communication alternatives for disabilities created equal?

               From the brief journey through the histories, origins, and components of Braille and ASL, it is apparent that no two TEXT technologies are created equal. Although superficially ASL is assigned to deaf individuals and Braille is assigned to blind people to compensate for a lost sense, the success and the degree to which each technology is able to compensate for the lost sense differ vastly. Braille is better able to retain messages and is more accessible; however, the next subject to explore would be to evaluate whether or not it is even fair to compare the two TEXT technologies. Braille is needed because blind people cannot see the written word and cannot communicate via writing, whereas ASL is needed because a person cannot hear the spoken work, thus they are functionally compensating for different modes of communication.  They are different their constitutive parts are fulfilling gaps in different vehicles of communication. Yet, they fulfill the same purpose of enabling communication to the disabled. Perhaps, it is the lens through which you evaluate Braille and ASL that deem it okay or inadmissible to compare.  

The 3 As: Accessibility, Authenticity, and Authority

Both Braille and ASL are TEXT technologies developed to compensate for the communication gap left when one cannot see or when one cannot hear. The very fact that these technologies are meant to be a substitute for another form of deciphering messages, questions surrounding accessibility, authenticity, and authority arise. How accessible are Braille and ASL to those who are blind or deaf? If a book by Hemingway is re-written in Braille or is “signed” aloud, is the entire essence of Hemingway’s book written in alphabet form or read in the spoken word retained? If not, then is the receiver of the information receiving authentic information from Hemingway or is it being reconstructed? Does the information being relayed by Braille or ASL lose its authority if the meaning has changed? These are all philosophical questions that arise when the original form of communication is being repackaged and redelivered vie a different route.

In Braille, a cell does not necessarily code for a single letter. Contractions are utilized to make reading and writing faster and more efficient where a single cell configuration may code for a suffix or even an entire word. Refer to the image below.

               

(Salomon ix)

Now, in ASL elements of the micro-structure (ie handshape, movement, etcetera) alter monomorphemic words from traditionally polysegmental words into monosegmental words (Crasborn). Questions that would normally be asked in the form of: “Are you a student?” are contracted and spliced into “Student you?” using ASL (Sign Language Phrases). The general message is there, but the essence of how the question is asked is lost. Furthermore, the spoken word must go through an intermediary (the person transcribing the spoken word) before the message is conveyed. There is no direct knowledge transfer unless during times when two people are signing with one another and not transcribing the spoken word. Though both Braille and ASL utilize contractions for faster and more efficient delivery of information, Braille does a better job in retaining the authenticity of any work being transcribed. Although a single cell may code for whole words, the use of symbols to code for a letter or word in the alphabet retains each and every word in a linear fashion. This is unlike ASL which seems to restructure the message to be communicated. If authority is defined as credibility of information being exchanged, then the TEXT technology with increased ability to retain authenticity has greater authority. In this case, it is the Braille system.

                The very nature of record-keeping also makes Braille more accessible than ASL. The information is stored and can even be digitized. In ASL, once the movement has completed, or even if the initiation of the movement is missed, the entire message is lost. ASL messages are transient and are lost to time. Because of the LML-skeletal structure, the message being conveyed is prone to errors and the attention span of the user. However, aside from the intrinsic components of Braille and ASL, there are logistical components. Not all books are written in Braille, yet a blind person can always write in Braille given they know the TEXT technology and own a Braille machine (equivalent to owning a computer or paper and pencil). ASL requires that a deaf individual understand it and a second individual who can hear and knows how to use ASL.

1.  Crasborn, Onno. "Phonetic and phonological distinctions in sign languages." Holland Institute of Generative Linguistics. (2000): 1-20. Web. 15 Dec. 2013. <http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/intersign/internal/vdhulst2.pdf>

2. Salomon, David. A guide to data compression methods. Vol. 1. Springer, 2002.

3. "Sign Language Phrases." Sign Language Phrases. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Dec. 2013. <http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/index/sign-language-phrases.htm>.

What Do They Do? How Do They Work? How Are They Made?

Braille:

(Salomon, ix)

          Braille is the system of “touch reading and writing” utilizing raised dots to represent letters of the print alphabet and symbols to represent punctuation, mathematics and scientific characters to aid those who are blind or visually impaired (National Braille Week Exhibition 2013). As opposed to ASL which relies on a visual-gestural language, Braille relies on the strengthening of the sense of touch to decipher meaning. It is a tactile TEXT technology and requires one to improve his sense of touch on his fingertips. Braille is essentially codified symbology for the written alphabet. Symbols are formed within units of space called cells, where a full cell consists of six raised dots “arranged in two parallel vertical rows each having three dots” (National Braille Week Exhibition 2013). The positions of raised dots in a given cell is what distinguishes a given letter, number, punctuation or even word. Pupils begin to learn Braille by improving their sense of touch by playing with peas and macaroni to acquire a nuanced understanding of textuality (Faulke 170). From there, trained instructors teach the meanings of different combinations of Braille until the individual can progress to writing their own messages using Braille machines (Salomon).

            Apparent from the way in which Braille is utilized, it offers blind people a great deal of independence. In order to read or write, a second party is not needed to assist in the information transfer. So long as a Braille alternative exists, blind people are able to fully immerse themselves into the same culture of reading books and written text as those without the disability. Furthermore, their exists Braille in foreign languages, allowing people to not only learn communication in English, but also in French, Arabic, etcetera (Faulke 169). The ability to read and write in foreign languages further underscores its utility in retaining the essence of what is being communicated as well as full access to intellectual freedom and literacy.

            A viable question would be to ask what the rationale behind using raised dots symbolizing the alphabet versus actual raised letters? The prevailing belief is that a relational method of dots that is formalized and designed for sensitivity for the human touch may be easier to use than symbols (the alphabet) that were intended for visual recognition. Braille was intended for use by touching, thus it functions with that specificity in mind. The mismatch of intention and function may lower the efficacy of the tactile system. Furthermore, it can be conceived that typing (in Braille) and reading in Braille would be faster with uniform, easy-to-create dots as opposed to more elaborate symbols, such as the alphabet. It is also simpler and can be analogized to that of present-day computers using binaries of 0 or 1. Either there is a raised or there is none. There is no room for confusion or doubt, whereas raised letters would be slower and more difficult to decipher if what one is feeling is a part of the same letter or a different letter since there is no uniformity.

           

Sign Language:

            For the deaf, sign language allows one to understand verbal communication through structured visual-gestural actions. The loss of hearing is compensated by increased, dual use of motion and visuals. Although a “language,” sign language is in fact a communicative tool, for it attains the goal of universality—universality referring to the ability to retain meaning and converse in different languages, similar to that of Braille. Like the spoken word, there are different “sign languages” for different languages defined through spoken word; there even exist dialects within these sign languages (Sign Language). Communicating through ASL utilizes a completely different type of communication modality than what is trying to be compensated. Although the spoken word is an auditory-vocal languages/tool and ASL is visual-gestural, ASL still has strict rules of engagement. In other words, it retains a strict structure of sequences of “movements and configurations of the hands and arms, face, and upper torso,” analogous to proper grammar (Sign Language).

            ASL has a structure that can be analyzed and divided into segments based on sentences, signs, and their components. ASL is composed of manual and non-manual properties; nonmanual properties are known to play a role in lexical distinctions and manual properties involve characterization of handshape, movement of the hand, location, and orientation (Crasborn). ASL adopts an LML-skeleton in communicating messages (Crasborn). The LML-skeleton is a guideline for hand motions and guides the initial location, intermediary movement, and final movement to convey the meaning of what is being gestured. The mechanization of motion to convey meaning is the tool and substrate for ASL, and all sign languages for that matter.

The Connection:

In its endeavors in compensating for its respective sensory disabilities, both Braille and ASL retain the basic materiality of the original form of communication being replaced. For example, Braille utilizes a paper substrate for record-keeping, much like other written text that can be visualized. ASL retains the use of using the human body to convey messages; just as how presence is needed to acquire the knowledge stored in the spoken word, presence and attention is needed to acquire the knowledge stored in ASL. Thus, Braille and ASL possess the same record-keeping properties as the communication gap caused by the disability they are restoring, but each provide a different technological decoder for absorbing the message. In terms of function, whereas Braille allows for independence, ASL is reliant on a second-individual who is able to hear and transcribe what is heard into sign language for the deaf individual. Although both Braille and ASL are very structured, ASL can be construed as more complex of the two. Whereas Braille aims for simplicity and faster in- and output, ASL seems to give importance to precision. Perhaps this is due to the transient nature of the TEXT ASL creates and the degree of chaos motion allows room for. It would be permissible to identify Braille as more inherently uniform as opposed to ASL, which must account for variations in human movement.

1.       Crasborn, Onno. "Phonetic and phonological distinctions in sign languages." Holland Institute of Generative Linguistics. (2000): 1-20. Web. 15 Dec. 2013. http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/intersign/internal/vdhulst2.pdf

2.       Foulke, Emerson. "5. Reading braille." Tactual perception: A sourcebook(1982): 168.

3.       "National Braille Week Exhibition 2013." Braille Facts. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2013. <http://www.nationalbrailleweek.org/page/braille-facts>.

4.       Salomon, David. A guide to data compression methods. Vol. 1. Springer, 2002.

5.       "Sign Language." WFD World Federation of the Deaf. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2013. <http://wfdeaf.org/human-rights/crpd/sign-language>.

Social Determinism and the Origins of Braille and Sign Language

Braille:

         The Braille system was invented by Louis Braille at the age of 15 in 1824 (Foulke 169). The first implementation of the 6-dot Braille system evolved from a night writing code used to send military messages that could be read on the battlefield when no light source was present called “Ecriture Nocturne,” underscoring the already discovered, albeit not refined, method of utilizing raised print letters to enable blind people to read independently (National Braille Week Exhibition 2013). Louis Braille was a victim of blindness from the age of three and was awarded a scholarship to the Royal Institution for Blind Youth in Paris where his desire to read more books increased and lead him to experiment better ways to do just that (National Braille Week Exhibition 2013). Thus, the Braille system was born out of need: social determinism. Although the Braille is now known to be a fully equipped tactile reading and writing system, the first paper published by Louis Braille was Music and Plain Songs by Means of Dots for Use by the Blind (National Braille Week Exhibition 2013). Music has a very different form of reading and writing, for it requires a sense of structure and methodology to communicate pauses and beats. Perhaps the level of eloquence and structure necessitated to write music in Braille allowed for further inquiry into its use as a tool for more diversified forms of communication.

Sign Language:

            Sign language is not simply pantomime, but rather a language that possesses structural properties that have evolved independently of spoken languages. It requires verbal agreement, aspectual marking, and has a system for forming agglutinative classifiers (Sign Language). Although the earliest written record of a sign language can be dated back to the fifth century BC, it was not until the 1960’s that sign language was formally researched in the United States under Stokoe (Crasborn). American Sign Language (ASL) was born only after structured research into sign language as a communicative tool for the deaf people. Thus, sign language as a text technology that requires instruction is relatively new.

The Connection:

ASL, similar to Braille, was born out of need. However, ASL is unique such that sign language had already existed prior to its formalization. Social determinism may have played a factor in birthing sign language, but technological determinism, defined as formalized research and best practices, played a role in structuring its use for dissemination, resulting in the advent of ASL. The origins of Braille and ASL uncovers the underlying nature of disseminating a given text technology that the masses have affinity towards, at least in respect to text technologies aimed at enabling communication for the disabled. Whereas Braille began as a result of focused aim at creating a reading and writing system, sign language evolved naturally for centuries. Not until sign language was recognized as a discipline did ASL become more widespread. This suggests that dissemination of a text technology requires a level of instruction and standardization. In turn, this requires the recognition of a tool’s value followed by its formal research.   Furthermore, the fact that Braille was formalized earlier implies that it had a greater perceived value in society.  As proposed earlier, the eloquence of Braille allowed for further exploration in its applicability to solve communication issues for blind people. Perhaps the eloquence of research by “experts” provides credibility to a given text technology. It seems as though formalization and eloquence are high criterion for continued exploration in alternative communication methods for the disabled.

1.       Crasborn, Onno. "Phonetic and phonological distinctions in sign languages." Holland Institute of Generative Linguistics. (2000): 1-20. Web. 15 Dec. 2013. <http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/intersign/internal/vdhulst2.pdf>Foulke, Emerson. "5. Reading braille." Tactual perception: A sourcebook(1982): 168.

2.       "National Braille Week Exhibition 2013." Braille Facts. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2013. <http://www.nationalbrailleweek.org/page/braille-facts>.

3.       "Sign Language." WFD World Federation of the Deaf. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2013. <http://wfdeaf.org/human-rights/crpd/sign-language>.

Introducing Braille and American Sign Language as Alternative Communicative Agents for the Disabled

              Communication and deliberate interactions with the natural world is one of the foundational elements of being human. TEXT technologies, defined as constructs of intentionality conveying meaning in a structured or even unstructured format as a means of transferring knowledge, have adapted to best suit human capabilities and their ability to utilize those TEXT technologies. The five senses of touch, sight, taste, hear, and smell have influenced the development of these communication systems. The sense of vision allows one to read and write text and the sense of hearing allows for communication through spoken word, making these two modes of communication effective and well-disseminated. Now, imagine a case where a person has the disability of profound deafness or blindness, what text technologies are available to combat the communication barrier caused if one were to lose either of these senses?

                The most common and widespread TEXT technologies available to people with impaired senses, specifically those who cannot see and those who cannot hear, are Braille and sign language, respectively. This blog sequence will specifically focus on American Sign Language (ASL).  There are over 360 million people worldwide with some sort of disabling hearing loss (“Sign Language” and "Deafness and Hearing Loss”). One million of people in the United States alone are functionally deaf and require the use of ASL to communicate, though sixty-five percent of these people are over the age of 65, with less than four percent of deafness affecting children under the ages of eighteen (Mitchell). In comparison, there are approximately six million visually impaired individuals in the world ("Statistical Facts about Blindness in the United States”). Approximately 59,193 of them are blind children in the Unites States, of which 8.8% utilize Braille for communication and educational purposes ("WHO”). Although both Braille and ASL are alternative modes of communication for those who are disabled, they are often construed as equivalent alternatives with the only difference being allotted to the user base of each text technology. Intrinsic in the very nature of who blindness and deafness affects and the type of communication that is altered,  are the underlying differences between Braille and ASL on the efficacy, communication networks, and inherent implications. The very fact that hearing loss affects mostly an older population embeds the idea that technological advances in. Through the course of this blog sequence, Braille and ASL will be compared and contrasted to reveal its underlying differences in correcting communication deficits caused by blindness or hearing loss. The following blog pieces will focus on major themes such as (but not limited to) history, intentionality, functionality, materiality, and accessibility to Braille and ASL in order to illuminate key differences between the two text technologies.

1.       Mitchell, Ross E. How Many Deaf People Are There in the United States? Estimates From the Survey of Income and Program ParticipationJ. Deaf Stud. Deaf Educ. (Winter 2006) 11 (1): 112-119 first published online September 21, 2005 doi:10.1093/deafed/enj004"Deafness and Hearing Loss."

2.        WHO. World Health Organization, Feb. 2013. Web. 08 Dec. 2013. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs300/en/>.

3.       "Sign Language." WFD World Federation of the Deaf. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2013. <http://wfdeaf.org/human-rights/crpd/sign-language>.

4.       "Statistical Facts about Blindness in the United States (2011)." Statistical Facts about Blindness in the United States. National Federation of the Blind, n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2013. <https://nfb.org/factsaboutblindnessintheus>